If you want to understand more about how to reduce the risk of death in the management of agitated patients, this is the essential reading list.
Handcuffs and Unexpected Deaths — “I Can’t Breathe” as a Medical Emergency
Bivens M, Jaeger E, Weedn V. Handcuffs and Unexpected Deaths — “I Can’t Breathe” as a Medical Emergency. New England Journal of Medicine. 2024;391(22):2068-2069. doi:10.1056/NEJMp2407162
Revamping Our Approach to Behavioral Emergencies:Why EMS Must Move Beyond “Control” and Towards Clinical Excellence
Jaeger E, Mehkri F. Revamping Our Approach to Behavioral Emergencies. NAEMSP. July 24, 2026. Accessed July 24, 2026. https://naemsp.org/revamping-our-approach-to-behavioral-emergencies/
15 Principles for Reducing the Risk of Restraint-Related DeathPolice Executive Research Forum
15 Principles for Reducing the Risk of Restraint-Related Death. 2024. Accessed September 24, 2026. https://www.policeforum.org/trending20sep24
“I can’t breathe” – A study of civil litigated cases on prone restraint deaths
Steinberg A, Patel D, Frugoli A. “I can’t breathe” – A study of civil litigated cases on prone restraint deaths. Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine. 2025;112:102862. doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2025.102862
Mortality associated with in-custody prone restraint: a review
Steinberg A, Frugoli A. Mortality associated with in-custody prone restraint: A review. Forensic Science International. 2025;377:112652. doi:10.1016/j.forsciint.2025.112652
CSAPH Report: Use of Drugs to Chemically Restrain Agitated Individuals Outside of Hospital Settings
Science C, Health P. CSAPH Report: Use of Drugs to Chemically Restrain Agitated Individuals Outside of Hospital Settings. American Medical Association; 2021. https://www.ama-assn.org/system/files/2021-05/j21-csaph02.pdf
Elijah McClain Death Investigation Report and Recommendations
Smith J, Costello M, Villaseñor R. Elijah McClain Death Investigation Report and Recommendations. City of Aurora, Colorado; 2021. Accessed September 10, 2026. https://www.auroragov.org/news/whats_new/independent_report_released_in_mc_clain_case
Patients in custody and in need of treatment: 8 recommendations for EMS
Wirth SP, Wolfberg DM. Patients in custody and in need of treatment: 8 recommendations for EMS. EMS1. Published online 09032021. https://www.ems1.com/ems-training/articles/patients-in-custody-and-in-need-of-treatment-8-recommendations-for-ems-P97NCCqvZ3BBlLh3/
Verbal de-escalation of the agitated patient: consensus statement of the American Association for Emergency Psychiatry Project BETA
De-escalation Workgroup
Richmond JS, Berlin JS, Fishkind AB, et al. Verbal de-escalation of the agitated patient: consensus statement of the American Association for Emergency Psychiatry Project BETA de-escalation workgroup. West J Emerg Med. 2012;13(1). doi:10.5811/westjem.2011.9.6864
Consensus Statement of the National Association of EMS Physicians International Association of Fire Chiefs and the International Association of Chiefs of Police: Best Practices for Collaboration Between Law Enforcement and Emergency Medical Services During Acute Behavioral Emergencies
Levy MK, Tan DK, McArdle DQ. Consensus Statement of the National Association of EMS Physicians International Association of Fire Chiefs and the International Association of Chiefs of Police: Best Practices for Collaboration Between Law Enforcement and Emergency Medical Services During Acute Behavioral Emergencies. Prehospital emergency care. 2024;28(8):1058-1062. doi:10.1080/10903127.2024.2402530
